- As a Chartered Geologist, my background and professional experience is in geology and geomorphology and the applicati... moreAs a Chartered Geologist, my background and professional experience is in geology and geomorphology and the application of these disciplines to civil engineering. My initial forays into the world of Egyptology and archaeology focused on the debate over the age of the Great Sphinx of Giza however, since then I have developed a wider appreciation for the geology of Egypt and more recently Jordan and Morocco.
Herodotus said "Egypt was a gift of the Nile" but I'm trying to look a little deeper than that. Not only was the development of the Nile a function of geological processes, but the mineral wealth from which the Pharaonic culture benefited greatly was in my view, a key element of the development of the ancient Egyptian state.edit
An introduction to the geology of Egypt and its influence on ancient Egyptian culture. This is the title information sheet from my book - which was released in early 2023. Available at your usual retail outlets. For more... more
An introduction to the geology of Egypt and its influence on ancient Egyptian culture.
This is the title information sheet from my book - which was released in early 2023.
Available at your usual retail outlets.
For more information, see my website www.giftofgeology.co.uk - link is attached
This is the title information sheet from my book - which was released in early 2023.
Available at your usual retail outlets.
For more information, see my website www.giftofgeology.co.uk - link is attached
Having examined the weathering and erosion of the limestones that were exposed by the excavation of the Great Sphinx, this author has previously concluded that whilst the Sphinx is a product of the Pharaonic culture, its excavation... more
Having examined the weathering and erosion of the limestones that were
exposed by the excavation of the Great Sphinx, this author has previously
concluded that whilst the Sphinx is a product of the Pharaonic culture, its
excavation pre-dates the 4th Dynasty Pyramids at Giza. Although space
here prevents the repeating of detailed arguments leading to this conclusion, the following pages will revisit a number of relevant issues in the context of criticism that has been presented by Dr Mark Lehner and Dr Zahi Hawass in their publication, Giza and the Pyramids (2017: 58-61).
exposed by the excavation of the Great Sphinx, this author has previously
concluded that whilst the Sphinx is a product of the Pharaonic culture, its
excavation pre-dates the 4th Dynasty Pyramids at Giza. Although space
here prevents the repeating of detailed arguments leading to this conclusion, the following pages will revisit a number of relevant issues in the context of criticism that has been presented by Dr Mark Lehner and Dr Zahi Hawass in their publication, Giza and the Pyramids (2017: 58-61).
There are a number of features of weathering and erosion within the enclosure surrounding the Great Sphinx of Giza which suggest the action of flowing water. That this erosion is not uniformly distributed is consistent, not with erosion... more
There are a number of features of weathering and erosion within the enclosure surrounding the Great Sphinx of Giza which suggest the action of flowing water. That this erosion is not uniformly distributed is consistent, not with erosion by rainfall per se but by rainfall run-off - an erosive agent which is known to have been experienced at Giza until the late Fifth Dynasty. When the spatial relationship of various features within the Giza necropolis is considered, the extant erosion indicates that the Sphinx may pre-date the reign of Khufu, the builder of the first Giza pyramid. The existence of pre-Fourth Dynasty development at Giza can be inferred from this - support for which is provided by a number of archaeological finds excavated from the site.
There has been much debate about the age of the Great Sphinx of Giza, much of which has focused on the weathering of the limestones from which the Sphinx was excavated. This debate tends to have focused on the Sphinx itself without... more
There has been much debate about the age of the Great Sphinx of Giza, much of which has focused on the weathering of the limestones from which the Sphinx was excavated. This debate tends to have focused on the Sphinx itself without addressing the wider implications of an early Sphinx for the Giza Necropolis or, ancient Egyptian history in general. It is my view that the evidence provided by the weathered and eroded limestone rocks at Giza clearly indicates that the Sphinx pre-dates the Fourth Dynasty. Rather than suggesting that the early Sphinx is an isolated relic of a long-lost culture, without context or provenance, however, the geo-archaeology of Giza is beginning to lift a veil on a little-appreciated Early Dynastic origin for the site.
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake-stelae from Ancient... more
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake-stelae from Ancient Egypt, leading to the proposed identification of the monument as part of an Early Dynastic senut(i)-shrine, a shrine associated with the cult of Ra.
First Published in Ancient Egypt Magazine July 2014
In a previous paper (Vandecruys, 2006), the evidence presented by the current author for re-dating the Great Sphinx of Giza and a number of other structures present within the Giza necropolis has been reassessed. Following this... more
In a previous paper (Vandecruys, 2006), the evidence presented by the current author for re-dating the Great Sphinx of Giza and a number of other structures present within the Giza necropolis has been reassessed. Following this re-assessment, Vandecruys has raised a number of objections to the current author's thesis. The current paper provides a response to the criticism of Vandecruys and presents further arguments in support of Early Dynastic development at Giza, of which the Great Sphinx is considered to have formed an important element.
Uploaded to Academia 14 Apr 2018 Two previous papers produced by Vandecruys have been critical of the theories of erosion of the Sphinx by rainfall runoff, previously advanced by Reader. In a final response to Vandecruys' theory that... more
Uploaded to Academia 14 Apr 2018
Two previous papers produced by Vandecruys have been critical of the theories of erosion of the Sphinx by rainfall runoff, previously advanced by Reader. In a final response to Vandecruys' theory that the extant degradation can be attributed to shallow groundwater movement, Reader explains the limitations of Vandecruys' groundwater model and further discusses the case for development at Giza before the Fourth Dynasty.
Two previous papers produced by Vandecruys have been critical of the theories of erosion of the Sphinx by rainfall runoff, previously advanced by Reader. In a final response to Vandecruys' theory that the extant degradation can be attributed to shallow groundwater movement, Reader explains the limitations of Vandecruys' groundwater model and further discusses the case for development at Giza before the Fourth Dynasty.
Uploaded to Academia 14 Apr 2018
King Sneferu, the founder of the 4th Dynasty, around 2600 b.c. Its name comes from the marked change in angle of the superstructure, with the lower half of the pyramid built at about 54° and the upper half built at 44°. This change in... more
King Sneferu, the founder of the 4th Dynasty, around 2600 b.c. Its name comes from the marked change in angle of the superstructure, with the lower half of the pyramid built at about 54° and the upper half built at 44°. This change in angle, however, is not the Bent Pyramid's only unusual feature. In addition to a conventional entrance near the centre of the northern face, some 12 m above ground level, the Bent Pyramid has a second entrance high on the western face, more than 30 m above the surrounding desert. These two entrances connect to quite distinct elements of the internal chambers. Some researchers have taken this (together with evidence for movement of the structure that may have occurred during the building works) to conclude that difficulties were experienced during construction. Local lads enjoy the water's edge of Lake Dahshur, one of a series of sacred lakes that once allowed quarried stone to be carried by boat to the edge of the pyramid precincts. In the background is the Bent Pyramid and its subsidiary pyramid.
Located more than 70 km south of Cairo, the Meidum pyramid is noteworthy because of its square, tower-like shape and the difficulties associated with its attribution. Drawing from previously published material together with the author's... more
Located more than 70 km south of Cairo, the Meidum pyramid is noteworthy because of its square, tower-like shape and the difficulties associated with its attribution. Drawing from previously published material together with the author's own observations from the site, the following paper will explore these two issues in order to reexamine the origins of this structure.
Research Interests:
Uploaded to Academia 14 April 2018
First Published in Ancient Egypt Magazine January 2014
Uploaded to Academia 14 Apr 2018
Uploaded to Academia 14 Apr 2018
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of... more
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of the pharaonic era. After discussing the topography of the site, the article presents a summary of the current understanding regarding known Early Dynastic monuments at Saqqara, together with an account of previously unpublished information obtained by the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project. By considering the evidence for the influence of landscape on the early development at Saqqara, the research presented here reveals a number of hitherto unsuspected spatial relationships within the site, as well as identifying features that may be shared by both Saqqara and the earlier royal necropolis at Abydos.
Research Interests:
First Published in Ancient Egypt Magazine January 2010
First Published in Ancient Egypt Magazine March 2010
The work of the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project has involved a close examination of the landscape of this important necropolis, prompting a reconsideration of the role landscape may have played in the selection of sites for Early... more
The work of the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project has involved a close examination of the landscape of this important necropolis, prompting a reconsideration of the role landscape may have played in the selection of sites for Early Dynastic royal burials at Saqqara. In this paper, the ideas of other authors are developed to argue that our modern view of Saqqara, which tends to regard the site from the perspective of the Nile Valley, is different from that of Egyptians of the Early Dynastic Period and early Old Kingdom. Furthermore, by altering our perspective of the site, a symbolic origin for the use of causeways in pyramid architecture can be proposed.
Research Interests:
Research Interests: Archaeology, Geology, Geochemistry, Archaeometry, Weathering, and 3 moreErosion, Sphinx, and Water Erosion
Located more than 70 km south of Cairo, the Meidum pyramid is noteworthy because of its square, tower-like shape and the difficulties associated with its attribution. Drawing from previously published material together with the... more
Located more than 70 km south of Cairo, the Meidum pyramid is noteworthy because of its square, tower-like shape and the difficulties associated with its attribution. Drawing from previously published material together with the author's own observations from the site, the following paper will explore these two issues in order to reexamine the origins of this structure.
Research Interests:
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake stelae from Ancient... more
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake stelae from Ancient Egypt, leading to the proposed identification of the monument as part of an Early Dynastic senut(i) shrine, a shrine associated with the cult of Ra.
Research Interests:
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of... more
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of the pharaonic era. After discussing the topography of the site, the article presents a summary of the current understanding regarding known Early Dynastic monuments at Saqqara, together with an account of previously unpublished information obtained by the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project. By considering the evidence for the influence of landscape on the early development at Saqqara, the research presented here reveals a number of hitherto unsuspected spatial relationships within the site, as well as identifying features that may be shared by both Saqqara and the earlier royal necropolis at Abydos.
Research Interests:
The National Museums of Scotland are engaged in producing an up-to-date archaeological and subsurface geophysical map of an interesting and little explored area of the necropolis of Memphis at Saqqara. The area comprises the Gisr el-Mudir... more
The National Museums of Scotland are engaged in producing an up-to-date archaeological and subsurface geophysical map of an interesting and little explored area of the necropolis of Memphis at Saqqara. The area comprises the Gisr el-Mudir (also known as the ‘Great Enclosure’) at the southern boundary, the open valley between the Sekhemkhet complex and the Gisr el-Mudir stretching north to the Serapeum and containing the L-shaped enclosure at the Old Kingdom tombs around the mastaba of Ptahhotep, the area of the Serapeum and its dependencies, and the valley to the north-west of the Sacred Animal complex down to the edge of the remnant lake at Abusir in the north. The geology, topography, structural details, techniques and instruments for geophysical prospection, methods of interpretation and results of our research are described and discussed. The conclusions draw on the significance of our work using geophysical prospection methods and sondage trenches to find the best solution for archaeological work in desert conditions.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake stelae from Ancient... more
This paper presents an assessment of a distinctive standing stone which is currently on display in the Imhotep Museum, Saqqara. The prominent snake decoration of the stela is compared with other examples of snake stelae from Ancient Egypt, leading to the proposed identification of the monument as part of an Early Dynastic senut(i) shrine, a shrine associated with the cult of Ra.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of... more
Drawing on previously published work by the current author, the aim of this article is to undertake a wider exploration of the influence that landscape may have had on the development of North Saqqara during the first three dynasties of the pharaonic era. After discussing the topography of the site, the article presents a summary of the current understanding regarding known Early Dynastic monuments at Saqqara, together with an account of previously unpublished information obtained by the Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project. By considering the evidence for the influence of landscape on the early development at Saqqara, the research presented here reveals a number of hitherto unsuspected spatial relationships within the site, as well as identifying features that may be shared by both Saqqara and the earlier royal necropolis at Abydos.
Research Interests:
Two previous papers produced by Vandecruys have been critical of the theories of erosion of the Sphinx by rainfall run–off, previously advanced by Reader. In a final response to Vandecruys’ theory that the extant degradation can be... more
Two previous papers produced by Vandecruys have been critical of the theories of erosion of the Sphinx by rainfall run–off, previously advanced by Reader. In a final response to Vandecruys’ theory that the extant degradation can be attributed to shallow groundwater movement, Reader explains the limitations of Vandecruys’ groundwater model and further discusses the case for development at Giza before the 4 Dynasty. Key–words: Giza – Sphinx – Khafre – fourth dynasty – old kingdom – weathering – interflow – enclosure – temple – erosion